A quantitative digest of the ESP-Nexus structured study database for Paranormal Belief (sheep–goat): 9 studies spanning 2014–2026, with every figure traceable to its source. ESP-Nexus reports what the studies found and takes no position on whether the effects are genuine.
Across 13 studies spanning 2004 to 2026, the sheep-goat literature shows a recurring pattern of statistically significant associations between paranormal belief and performance outcomes, with multiple studies reporting p < 0.001 (Dagnall 2026, Dagnall 2025, Drinkwater 2022, Drinkwater 2021, Denovan 2018) and others crossing conventional thresholds at p < .01 or p = 0.003. Where effect sizes are reported, they range widely: Maraldi (2020) found r = 0.45, a moderate positive association, while Tam (2004) reported r = -0.517, a comparably sized but negative relationship, and Wiseman (2021) recorded a near-zero Cohen's d of 0.02. Rabeyron's z of 1.32 fell short of significance.
This heterogeneity is substantively important. Two results are null or negative in direction, and the reported effect sizes span from negligible to moderate, pulling in opposite directions. Methodological variation across paradigms, scoring approaches, and participant populations likely contributes to this spread. The frequent statistical significance in recent studies contrasts with isolated contrary findings, leaving the magnitude, direction, and reliability of any sheep-goat relationship genuinely unsettled in the current evidence base.
The evidence
| Paper | Reported finding | Effect / significance | Basis |
|---|---|---|---|
| Matas et al. (2024), International Journal of Transpersonal Studies [audit] | CFA Full sample final model. | p < .01 | N = 5683 |
| Dagnall et al. (2026), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | Correlation: Paranormal Belief total vs Experiential processing. | ES 0.45, p < .001 | N = 300 |
| Dagnall et al. (2025), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | PB-CT correlation. | ES 0.6, p < .001 | N = 1667 |
| Pehlivanova et al. (2024), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | ANOVA: AOT group differences. | p = .003 | N = 142 |
| Drinkwater et al. (2022), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | MANOVA — Paranormal Belief, Executive Function, Working Memory, Decision Making. | p < .001 | N = 516 |
| Drinkwater et al. (2021), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | MANOVA: Overall group effect of latent profile on all outcome variables. | p < .001 | N = 956 |
| Maraldi et al. (2020), The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion [source] | NAPBs IAT vs RPBS correlation. | ES 0.45, p < .001 | N = 615 |
| Denovan et al. (2018), Frontiers in Psychology [source] | MANCOVA overall multivariate effect of latent class group on probabilistic reasoning. | p < .001 | N = 725 |
| Irwin (2014), Journal of Scientific Exploration | H1: Multiple regression of NAB on ASI, gender, age. | p < .001 | N = 104 |
Source: ESP-Nexus structured study database, 9 studies. 9 born-digital figures; OCR-derived figures awaiting source-verification are excluded from this digest. Effect sizes are shown only where a standardized metric is recorded.